"Do you know the Lebanon?"
I shook my head.
"In the evenings the sky is like wine and the shadows falling across the terraces have purple edges to them. Overhead, vines - grape and other things with big flowers and a wonderful smell. Everything is very still and warm and soft. It's the kind of atmosphere in which myths are born and the pictures in your mind's eye seem more real than the chair you're sitting on. I wax lyrical, you see."
Eric Ambler
Judgement on Deltchev, 1951
Introduction:
Beirut has carried a cosmopolitan legacy that dates back to ancient Rome (about 14th century BC). Its location, which is at the confluence of the Mediterranean sea, binds together its culture identity with that of its neighbours - the Arabs, the French, the Spanish, the Greek and the Italians. It is at the crossroads of two main cultures - Arab at local level & Mediterranean at trans-regional level. Being a port town since the ancient time, it has been a popular hub for traders & travellers from Europe, Asia and all over the world. Its location was also was strategic in terms of sea route trades as well as in land (Silk route) trades.
Beirut in the context of its Mediterranean neigbours
Its location has contributed significantly to its eminent history and influences of diverse religions and cultures. This probably made way for the liberal attitudes of the inhabitants since the origin of the city. This shaped a unique ethnic identity for the city, its inhabitants and their way of life.
Origin:
The earliest known origins of the city is its base for the ancient Phoenician Civilization.
During 14 BC, the Romans occupied the villages in the region and renamed it Berytus or Roman Berytus.
The classical city included aqueducts and fountains for providing water; markets (agora or fora) for buying and selling food and clothing; public baths for cleanliness and recreation; temples for veneration to the Gods and straight rectilinear paved streets, some with colonnades for moving about the city.
Remnants of the Cisterns of Roman Baths
It also included a well-developed natural harbour for Mediterranean trade and travel and well paved roads with milestones for moving on to neighbouring cities and towns. This includes networks to nearby cities of Sidon (Saida) and Byblos (Jbleis).
Kanater Zbeideh - Remnants of Roman Aqueducts on the outskirts of the City
9th Century AD: Walled City & Traditional Settlements
Approximate Path of Old City walls and their Gates (Bab)superimposed on the city fabric
Although there are no evidences of the exact date of the wall construction, the historical chronicles and the archaeologists suggest the date to be approximately 9th century AD. Both wall and moat were built atop the Phoenician cemetery, and cut across the ruins of the Phoenico-Persian, Hellenistic and Roman residences.
Inner City Fortifications
The immigrants from lower economic backgrounds lived near or beyond the walls. The caravans were parked here where they would be equipped, marshalled, dispatched and received with other towns. The items included fruit, vegetable and livestock. It also included services that were considered noisy such as tanning and butchering.
16th Century Ottoman Colonial Period
The Ottoman Empire was instrumental in the development of the city. The city still carries traces of the culture through its built fabric and traditions. Its administration was considered effective.
It was during this period that Beirut transformed into a well established port and commercial center. This was due to Europe's keen interest in Lebanese silk and other export products. This boom in cross-regional trade allowed certain groups to establish trade and manufacturing empires that further strengthened Beirut's position as a key partner in the interests of imperial dynasties.
Physical Characteristics
The patterns of these structures represented the influence of the Turkish Culture blended with the local regional features, including material such as sandstone. The upper facade included 3 windows in a row. The glass above forms an arch at the top. The structures faced the street. The fenestration openings were wide as much as possible
A demonstrative Facade
Turn of the 19th Century: Onslaught of New Natives and Spaces of Cultural Exchange
1804
The Map is Portolan Chart (Pl), which is an ancient sea chart wayfinding method to find harbours. Beirut at the time was an established Port. This map network was used by Mediterranean navigators and made it convenient to locate & approach the city. It includes coastal topographical features such as its height, water levels & depths, wetlands and inland tributaries identified. It also shows an identifiable landmark for the city including a built structure of Ottoman architectural influence, who reigned the city at the time. At the time, Beirut was a part of Syria.
Early landscape of the Port City
Early Beirut possessed rangy gardens and agricultural fields beyond the urban extent. The natural landscape stretch consisted of grass, dense vegetation and fields sprinkled with yellow houmayda flowers.
Khan Antoun Bey
The structure was built in 1860 by Antoun Bey el Masri, a Constantinople native. It was used as an inn for travellers. The Ottoman structure became a landmark for the city's residents. Aside from being a boarding house, it accommodated a number of official offices and commercial space.
1885 - City Expansion
This was the period during which the city spatially expanded centrally towards the south, from the existing city limits.
The infrastructure developed parallelly to cater to this expansion. The proposals included a port along the coast and road networks. The geophysical terrain such as the shoreline & sea levels provides a broad overview for the scope and approach of development for the city.
Unloading at the Harbour ca 1880s
French engineers had established the modern harbour in 1894 and a rail link across Lebanon to Damascus and Aleppo in 1907. Additionally, much of the trade was carried by French ships to Marseille. French influence in the area soon exceeded that of any other European power.
Ain el Mressieh:
A traditional fishing harbour district initially developed along the sidelines of the main trading coast. This was one of the first districts located at the sea side, dedicated to the coastal livelihood activities. It is interconnected through a web of small streets. These streets are lined with traditional cottages.
Ain el Mressieh
Sahet al Nejmeh:
This was one of the first districts to come into existence. It currently serves as one of the important historic cores of the city. It is located within the same area where the Roman forum was historically located
Sahet al Nejmeh, also known as Place de L'etoile
Market Street, 1890s
Market Spaces had been spatially articulated for provision of traditional & skilled services through the years. These spaces had been especially carved out from the Hellenistic grids and rectilinear street alignments laid from the Roman Era during the Ottoman Reign.
Souks were the central market places which was the main point of exchange. This included shops that sold fresh produce, textiles, jewellery, spices, other valuable goods and storehouses for imported wares.
The city skyline ca 1880s
1909
During this period, the city coast had a developed harbour & quay, complete with a customs house. Inter-regional transport networks including Road to Tripoli, and railway lines to Damascus & Djounek were also planned for expansion and a railway station established. Though under Ottoman control at the time, French influence had undertaken progressive hold.
Influence of Arab Traditional Street Planning:
The arterial streets were a part of a bigger cultural quarter or a neighbourhood. The quarter system is based off from traditional Arab urban planning. Each of these had about a 100 - 1000 inhabitants, a mosque, church or synagogue; and a local subsidiary market catering to daily needs. The quarters were an extension of the houses.
Beirut Railway Station
By this time, the cultural influences from especially the European regions began to mould the urban morphology of the city. Each of these region established social institutions for specific peruse.
Many International Consulates especially from the west, had been established by this time. The European consulates include - French, English, Austrian, Italian, German & Belgian. The others include the USA and the Russian consulates.
American School of Girls, now known as the Lebanese American University
It is observed that many social institutions from the time are specifically named as per the region, community or sect of those who founded it. This adds to the multicultural background of the city. For instance, German Orphanage, American College and St John's Protestant Hospital. Despite the cultural/community specific background of these institutions, they contributed services even to the original inhabitants of the city. Many of these institutions had commenced with the intention providing of education for the women in the city.
The social institutions also included Religious Structures. Many of the churches were later converted to mosques and these have now remained as changed.
The urban landscape included traditional settlements with red roofed, stone houses dotted across wide open natural landscape, including the majestic mountains at the background, pleasantly transitioning downwards, from the field towards the Mediterranean coast
Many districts/sectors were developed as a part of the urban development strategy such as Es Saifa, Ez Zeitouni, El Bachoura and Achrafieh. Many of these still exist to date, some more well known than others.
Achrafieh
The district consists of mixed use development. The neighbourhood is characterized by narrow winding streets, large apartment & office buildings and coffee shops. During the war in 1975, the neighbourhood had been physically impacted. Currently, many quaint, old, traditional mansions are under the threat of demolition to make way for high rises.
A narrow, residential street in the district
1912
The French now had a keen interest in the urban development of the city. The city plan demonstrates the tram line system inter-connecting the city longitudinally and transversely. It is observed that the traditional spaces such as souks and markets were preserved as is and the focus was on strengthening the city's infrastructure networks.
City scene in the 1900s. A traditional lemonade seller is seen passing by a commercial street
Wadi Abu Jamil:
This district is a former Jewish quarter. The neighborhood was home to Lebanon's centuries-old Jewish community and also for the more recent Jewish refugees from Syria and Iraq. Emigration from the community began after 1967. The area today is home to fewer than 100 Lebanese Jews.
Aerial View of the Quarter
Gemmayzeh:
Rue Gouraud is a mixed use , residential + commercial street in the Gemmayzeh neighbourhood. It is currently a well known cultural district with its mix of local culinary scene and historic buildings from the French Era, making it attractive zone for visitors.
Rue Gouraud with the tram system
1912
The Map depicts Infrastructure & Natural Ecosystem Networks of the City and Beyond.
The Natural Water systems include Nahar and Wadi. The Artificial water connection systems includes an aqueduct. The road networks to outer towns and cities have also been developed. This made it convenient for the inhabitants to set up their own farm houses in the calm of the country side. Other than this, tourist destination places began to be developed in the outer towns.
Small Towns on the outskirts of the City
Aleih/Aley
This is a mountainous town on the outskirts of the city. It is popular due to its cool climate even during the summer months.
Many of these small towns have continued their traditional industries such as grain mills and spice producers. Most of these industries also cater to the main city.
1920s - French Mandate and influences on Urban Planning
1936
After World War 1, the French Mandate took over Beirut. The city development began to take influence from the French in many ways. The streets and places began to be known with French names. Even the street signs were labelled in French and Arabic. French became a second language for the city residents.
Considering the topography of the city, a corniche was developed. It is common destination for walkers, joggers and bikers. It is lined with palm trees, the waterfront esplanade has views of the Mediterranean and the summits of Mount Lebanon to the east.
Corniche
Hamra Neighbourhood
This period also began the development of the Hamra district. This district is considered different compared to the others because of its mixed religious occupations. It is also a well known commercial district with choicest restaurants, cafes and fashion stores.
Traditional Souk (L) and market (R) in the city during the period
Open Spaces in the City
Sanayeh Garden:
The Sanayeh district is popularly known for a garden of the same name. The garden is one of the oldest public open-air spaces in the capital. The garden was popular amongst the local residents. It currently serves as one of the urban greens within the city.
Sanayeh Garden, 1942
Horsh al Sanawbar or Horsh Beirut:
The urban green was an open 80 acres land. It was a pine forest that was subjected to the use of its wood through the years. It is now a triangular park as the southern limits of the city. After the Lebanese Civil War, it was reconstructed, yet was closed to the general public for ever 25 years. It was re-opened to the general public in 2015.
Horsh al Sanawbar
1940s: City Expansion and Strategies for Suburban Development
Beirut Urban Expansion up to 1939
By the early 1940s Beirut was urbanized to its fullest. French Urban Planner, Michel Écochard was appointed to strategize the urban expansion. This was also when the suburbs began to develop further.
1943 - City Extension Strategy Plan
The proposed plan was based on major thoroughfares, the creation of a new town and a project to reorganize the congested districts in the center of town. The founding principles of this type of planning were inspired by those of the Modern Movement. Functionalism and rationalism define the urban zoning in which functions were separated.
'System of Circulation' was proposed which included - Bypasses, a N-S linkage; crossoads; and cut to the heart, new paths from the ring road to the historic core.
In the course of his time in the Levant, Écochard introduced a new way, and, by introducing the premises of urbanism of the Modern Movement, he began a new form of intervention in urban space under French administration
Dora, Matn District - North Eastern Suburb
Dora is one of Beirut's busiest suburbs with many companies and factories located in the suburb. It mainly a Christian dominated area, with people of other faiths living there as well. Foreign laborers, especially Egyptian, Iraqis and Sri Lankans also live in Dora due to the lower-cost rents available. It also has many cultural market streets that was started by the foreign expats creating ethnic enclaves
1950s to 60s : Era of Political Movements in the City
The Cafes on Beiruti Streets were bustling with intellectuals, visionaries and artists from Beirut, Cairo, Alexandria, Baghdad, Istanbul and more. This was the era of literary & political movements and this section of people gathered to exchange ideologies
El Dorado Cafe at Hamra Street
Cafe Farouk, Riad Solh Street
Master Plan 1963-64
Michel Écochard created a Masterplan for Beirut and its suburbs. Its Vision was to integrate Beirut into a Regional & National Strategy
Functional Strategy for the City
The master plan foresaw large roads linked with a hierarchy of speeds. The network of large roads had the objective of creating a ‘coherent whole’. It included roads penetrating the city from outside, and roads connecting different neighborhoods and the new city with the current city center.
Zones in urgent need of development are suggested, including slums, in order to prevent their endless extension. Two new towns are proposed in order to cope with the growth of the city. The zoning reflects the vision of a city of varied density. This was done to safeguard the site and its impressive landscape. Two new “centres of attraction” were proposed to allow less concentration in the heavily populated traditional centre. Rapid east-west circulation, avoiding the city centre, completed the plan
Although the plan was not followed through, it left an impact on the perception of urban space and planning.
Rue Georges Picot in the 60s
Lebanese Civil War 13 Apr 1975 – 13 Oct 1990
Beirut was at the peak of its economic boom in the 70s. The city was considered a glamorous tourist center of the Middle East. However, the Civil War had been a turning point for the city and its inhabitants alike. The war lasted for over 15 years. The physical impacts on the urban fabric is still observed to date.
Incomplete Architectural Projects
There were many architectural projects, especially of social use, that were left abandoned halfway with the outbreak of the war. This was a cinema building that was halfway through its construction, and still remains in the state to date. The architect community was in the favour of preserving the structure to integrate it into new projects. The structure is still used as a center of talks for further development. This was designed by Joseph Phillipe Karam and was a part of a mixed use development project.
Grand Theatre, Beirut
Another well known structure that was left incomplete due to the war, was an exhibition center design by Brazilian Architect Oscar Neimeyer, in Tripoli, outside Beirut.
Shell Structures
Phoenicia Hotel and Holiday Inn
Both these hotels, along with many others, were used as military battlegrounds during the 'Battle of Hotels' in 1975. These were used as vantage points. Since then, the hotels' shells have remained as grey, bullet-riddled ruins, still high and looming over the city. Some that were not as affected, continued to function normally.
Impact on older, traditional buildings
Many older buildings and those that have been affected by the war still are a part of the urban landscape. One of the main reason is that the owner could only raise rent after the current renter has moved out. The reasonable rent allows the renter to continue staying in the apartment. This is why only the interior of the building is kept to renter's taste. However, the outer shell of the building has no structural modifications in any way.
1994 - Early 2000s: Urban Reconstruction & New Urbanism
After the war, Solidere was established. It was a Lebanese Company for the Development and Reconstruction of Beirut Central District. It was private company appointed by the then prime minister Rafic Hariri. The agency has been integral in reviving and increasing accessibility to the public market streets, squares and sea front promenades.
Saifi Village, 2000:
Saifi Neighbourhood was extensively damaged during the war. Solidere redeveloped the entire neighbourhood as an upscale residential zone. It was a new urbanism type development that included walkable streets and mixed use. The over all visual theme for the reconstruction was reminiscent of French vernacular architecture. This included cobblestone streets, town houses and corner elements.
Small scale street architecture in the neighbourhood reinforcing a sense of place
The design is based on sector plan that takes into account the preserved residential fabric. Soft pastel shades used reflect the color palette used on the restored buildings.
The neighbourhood was designed by the French urban planner François Spoerry and featured buildings designed by Lebanese Architects.
Reconstruction of Beirut Souks, 2006:
These redeveloped souks were a post-war incarnation as upscale shopping districts, rather than traditional small scale market streets. However structurally, most of the built forms carried influences of Lebanese traditional architecture.
Most of the shops in the district include luxury shopping boutiques such as Hermès, Alain Phillipe and Tissot.
A redeveloped Souk street
The souk has been designed such that it has integrated the material remnants of historical past into its spatial fabric. This includes decorative elements such as Byzantine mosaic (5th - 6th century AD) that was salvaged during archaeological excavations from 1990s, laid as flooring; restored architecture including a mosque, a madrassa and a fountain; the remnants of Phoenico-Persian settlements integrated within a museum and a Medieval wall and moat that has been restored & integrated as a sunken landscape. This provides a rich material record of the city's past for the visitors.
From L to R - The remnants of the Phoenico-Persian settlements, a school structure from the Mamluk Period and the Byzantine mosaic tiles used as flooring.
Current
Beirut's urban landscape now carries physical traces of its peak, loss and re-birth. The historic streets are dotted with old townhouses with arched windows and wrought iron balconies.
Rue Gourard, a very popular street in the city
These structures carry a timeless charm, having survived history and the war. The pastel wall colours - eggshell blue, apricot and lemon yellows allows its elegance to still shine through. Despite signs of damage and age, most of these have been restored to its former glory, allowing the visitors to be charmed of its beauty.
Traditional & Local Lifestyle
The city's lifestyle reflects an old Mediterranean style decadence. This includes the joys of eating, drinking, dancing and sitting around for hours & talking. These are some of the passions shared by the neighbours across the sea, a culture in the way of life.
Vibrant Street scene from the 60s
One of the traditions include old men gathering at coffee shops. This local lifestyle has still continued even as the traditional coffee shops give way to shiny new chain establishments.
Another, is men coming down to throw in their fishing lines in the harbour, through generations. Even as the city implodes and rebuilt itself, some of these local habits have continued.
The City as a Living Memory
The streets of Beirut carry the memories of the collective. Before the war in 1975, it was a popular hub in the Mediterranean especially from the western countries. Their multicultural ethnicities and liberal world views was considered their measure of progress
The generation that were young children during the war, were especially affected as many families were forced to relocate to other countries. These personal recollections of the city that were imbibed as self identities. This created a yearning amongst them to re-associate themselves with their roots.
These associations were more a part of cultural as well as self identities. Each of these personal associations networked to a collective association channeled through nostalgia.
Self exploration to establish their ethnicities
Source: Author
In her book, Salma Abdelnour (a food writer) had expressed her need to be re-associated with her Beiruti roots. Re-establishing familial relations and experiencing food habits from other cultures, including those from Syria and Armenia helped her recreate this association.
Karl Wolf, now a singer, had moved to Canada during the Civil War when he was young. His music expresses his gratitude to his family and his need to be re-associated with his ethnic roots. His music also has influences of Arabic traditional music elements that makes his art an expression of his self identity.
Complementary Literature & Resources:
Hall, L. J. (2004). Roman Berytus: Beirut in Late Antiquity. Routledge, London & New York.
Kassir, S. (2010). Beirut. University of California Press | Berkeley, Los Angeles & London.
Abdelnour, S. (2012). Jasmine and Fire - A Bittersweet Year in Beirut. Broadway Paperbacks, New York.
ETH Studio BASEL Contemporary City Institute. (2009). Beirut in the 60s. ETH Studio Basel.
Samah, CA. (2006). Summer Days [Recorded by Karl Wolf]. On Face Behind the Face [CD, Digital Download]. Montreal: Karl Wolf.
Samah, CA. (2009). My Ethnicity [Recorded by Karl Wolf]. On Nightlife [CD, Digital Download]. Montreal: Karl Wolf.
Archive Collection: Michel Écochard
Archive Pictures: https://oldbeirut.com/
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